Bio-mathematics, Statistics, and Nano-Technologies Mosquito Control Strategies (Peyman Ghaffari)

■Bio-mathematics, Statistics and Nano-Technologies: Mosquito Control Strategies

the laboratory (Bibbs et al. 2016). In2Care traps are speciﬁcally designed for larval control

by auto-dissemination of IGRs (Buckner et al. 2017).

1.6.8

Endectocides

This is a systematic administration with the toxic ivermectin or other related drugs

by humans and animals. When people and animals take in ivermectin, the toxin will be

circulated into the blood, then the biting mosquitos and other blood-sucking insects take

in the toxin and other drugs to kill mosquitos and the insects (WHO 2019). Currently,

there are only products available for dogs and cats to use by orally administration against

mosquitos and ﬂeas.

1.6.9

Attractive Toxic Sugar Bait (ATSB)

ATSB is a novel control method for adult mosquitos based on sugar feeding behavior

(Xue et al. 2013, Kline et al. 2018). There are several reports about the active ingredi-

ents for the ATSB and the most effect ingredient is boric acid (Xue & Barnard 2003) and

dinotefuran (Traore et al. 2002). ATSBs can be effectively used as bait stations or sprayed

on vegetation as demonstrated by the effective control of malaria vector mosquitos (Traore

et al. 2020). Another beneﬁt of ATSBs is the small impact on non-target organisms (Fioren-

zano et al. 2017). There are also several reports about using U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) 25B exemption of essential oils extracted from botanical resources along

with ivermectin, and other insecticides as the active ingredient against mosquitos. Recently

documentations showed that the ATSB could kill the resistant strains of Culex quinquefas-

ciatus (Gu et al. 2019) and Aedes aegypti (Pearson et al. 2020) and mixed with the insect

growth regulator, pyriproxyfen, could control adult and larval mosquitos (Fulcher et al.

2014, Scott et al. 2017).

1.6.10

Vaccine

There is a plethora of research on vaccines for several mosquito-borne diseases. So far,

vaccines for yellow fever and Japanese B encephalitis virus are successful and have been

marketed for many years. Vaccines for West Nile and East Equine Encephalitis (EEE)

viruses are successful for animals, but not for human beings. The ﬁrst-generation malaria

vaccine (RTS,S/AS01 vaccine (Mosquirix^TM) was created in 1987 and began pilot imple-

mentation in endemic countries in 2019 and demonstrates modest efﬁcacy against malaria

illness and holds promise, especially for children (Laurens 2020). However, after several

ﬁeld trials, the vaccines for malaria parasites and dengue fever viruses have not been mar-

keted yet due to complications with multiple species of malaria parasites and various serum

types of dengue virus. Vaccines for Zika and other viruses have been explored, without any

successful progress reported.

1.6.11

Challenges and Conclusions

Humans are at an increased risk of mosquito-borne diseases in the world and the peo-

ple in the world, are not adequately prepared to respond to public health threats (CDC